Links to notes on philosophies and philosophers:

Aquinas	Aristotle	Augustine	Simone de Beauvoir	Jeremy Bentham	Cynicism	Epicureanism	Thomas Hobbes
David Hume	William James	Immanuel Kant	John Stuart Mill	Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche		Nel Noddings	William of Ockham
Plato	Universal Prescriptivism	Ayn Rand	Jean-Jacques Rousseau	Jean-Paul Sartre	Baruch Spinoza	Stoicism	Utilitarianism

Aquinas (1225 or '27-1274) See notes on other philosophers and philosophies All life has a purpose Meeting this purpose allows one to be happy. Happiness is to be found in the love of God. God's grace providing entrance into heaven creates the highest form of human happiness. Short of heaven, a person can achieve a more limited form of happiness through a life of virtue and friendship. Morality is not determined by the arbitrary will of God. Morality is derived from human nature and the activities that are objectively suited to it. The difference between right and wrong can be appreciated through the use of reason and reflection. Religious reflection may supplement the use of reason and reflection to determine right from wrong. Societies must enact laws to ensure the correct application of moral reasoning. Human nature is good because God made it good.	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC) See notes on other philosophers and philosophies The life of virtue is rewarding for the individual and the community. The essence of a thing does not exist independent of the thing. There is no completely universal idea of "the good." There is an individualized ideal form for all living things. In living in accordance with their true nature, humans will find the most enjoyment out of reasoning. An investigation of human nature can reveal how humans ought to act. Humans have a pre-defined purpose. People can have variations on the best way to exist in order to meet their purpose. The mean between the extremes of any given characteristic is the ideal. The rule of the "Golden Mean" is not to be applied mechanically Aristotle discusses having practical knowledge as being able to have the right means to one's action and the right ends See notes on other philosophers and philosophies	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Augustine (354-430) See notes on other philosophers and philosophies Happiness is a union of the soul with God after one has died Bodily pleasures are relatively inferior to spiritual pleasures. Philosophical reasoning is not the path to wisdom and happiness. A love of God and faith in Jesus is the only path to happiness. God is the one to allow people to practice the love of God. One must love God in order to fulfill moral law. People are inherently evil; only the grace of God (or is it merit to be saved?) can save them.	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Ayn Rand (1905-1982) See notes on other philosophers and philosophies We should all act with our own interests as the ultimate goal of our actions. We have free will. Moral standards are objective, and can be known rationally.	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Cynicism See notes on other philosophers and philosophies All the fruits of civilization are worthless Salvation is found in a rejection of society and a return to simple ascetic living Virtue consists in finding salvation in oneself	Rate This Philosophy (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Simone de Beauvoir See notes on other philosophers and philosophies Ethical questions cannot be solved abstractly One must reject oppression of self and others One must recognize one's own freedom	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) See notes on other philosophers and philosophies When we choose something, we affirm the value of our choice because we have chosen it above other choices When we choose something for ourselves, we should choose it for all people. We must be consistent in our interpretations of moral situations regardless of whom the agent is. Logic cannot help us in specific situations Making conscious moral choices is more significant than consistently following moral guidelines The conflict between the interests of two people is in the end, irresolvable	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) See notes on other philosophers and philosophies We can make a prior judgments; the negation of such judgments would a logical absurdity because a priori knowledge is known without sensory data. We combine a priori and a posteriori knowledge to We have freedom God is not essential for his moral argumentation The objective facts about the human knowledge leads to Kant's morality We must act out of a sense of duty in order to be moral Moral action does not come out of following inclinations Moral standards must be followed without qualification We must always act so that the means of our actions could be a universal law We must always treat people as ends not means	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (1844-1900) See notes on other philosophers and philosophies We have free will There is no God Social conformity should not hold us back The interests of others should not restrain us We should be passionate beings Masculinity, strength and passion are the highest qualities in a person Conventional morality is a crutch to man	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Bentham, Jeremy (1748-1832) See notes on other philosophers and philosophies Nature has placed humans under two states: pain and pleasure. The words right and wrong are significant only when related to the Utilitarian principle. Pleasures are not distinguished by quality; pleasure has quantifiable value.	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Epicureanism Epicurus (341-270 BC) - Greek founder of Epicureanism Pleasure is the ultimate moral end Dynamic (passionate) pleasures are bad, passive (mild) pleasures are good The end result of pleasure is what is significant	Rate This Philosophy (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Noddings, Nel See notes on other philosophers and philosophies Traditional western ethics has oppressed female voices We should look to traditional women's practices as a way of determining our ethics We should use an ethics of care: emphasizing loving others, meeting needs, and nurturing.	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Hobbes, Thomas (1588-1679) See notes on other philosophers and philosophies By human nature, all of man's voluntary actions are aimed at self-pleasure and self-preservation Altruism may be pleasurable for the giver Good = 'any object of desire' We must live under a social contract to have peace We need a sovereign to enforce the social contract	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Hume, David (1711-1776) See notes on other philosophers and philosophies Reason can show us how to meet our ends, but only passions and sentiment can determine our ultimate goals. No "is" implies an "ought." Reason cannot give rise to moral judgments. Humans are naturally sympathetic creatures	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Mill, John Stuart (1806-1873) See notes on other philosophers and philosophies The Utilitarian principle is correct when the quality of pleasures is accounted for Liberty is the most important pleasure	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Ockham, William of (1285-1347/49) See notes on other philosophers and philosophies God's Will is the only determinant of good and evil. Faith and revelation, not philosophizing, allow one to know good from evil.	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Plato (427-347) See notes on other philosophers and philosophies There is reason to act justly even if one can get away with acting unjustly. There is a single, general, pure idea of goodness that all good things possess. There is only one model of the just person. Justice is a harmony of the soul: intellect, emotion, and desire. The best activity is intellectual stimulation and the most important quality is a strong intellect. The just person is pleased, not in a state of discord. The conflict between one's own good and the good of the community is NOT irresolvable.	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Prescriptivism, Universal See notes on other philosophers and philosophies Moral judgments are an expression of our will. once we have expressed our will through moral judgments, in order to be logically consistent, we must (1) make similar evaluations about similar cases and (2) we must keep our moral beliefs in harmony with how we live and want others to live. Moral judgments are imperatives.	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Spinoza, Baruch (later known as Benedictus) (1632-1677) See notes on other philosophers and philosophies Determinist Something must have a desirable affect on man in order to be good Must understand determinism of the world	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Stoicism See notes on other philosophers and philosophies The common capacity to reason allows all humans to achieve virtue and wisdom. The external circumstances of a person's life are irrelevant. One can achieve virtue by becoming indifferent to external differences. Passions must be rejected all together in deciding what is good and what is bad. Reason alone must be used in deciding what is good and what is bad. The common ability of humans to reason is why ethical relativism should be rejected.	Rate This Philosophy (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Utilitarianism See notes on other philosophers and philosophies Strives for moral objectivity We ought to act in such a way that the consequence of our actions produce the greatest overall amount of good or utility Rightness dependent on the consequences of the action Consequences viewed in terms of how they affect everyone	Rate This Philosophy (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
William James (1842-1910) See notes on other philosophers and philosophies Which is the most important, morally? Mostly the ends (the results from the action). Will using morality properly necessarily result in maximization of our own happiness? Yes, for the most part, at least. Is the self-pleasure or self-preservation of the individual ever in conflict with the same type of interests of others? No, and virtuous living is consistently beneficial to the individual and the community. Mostly agrees Moral statements are primarily: statements of fact or truth (e.g. "Murder is wrong" means "It is a fact that murder is wrong"). Where does the proper distinction between "good" and "bad" come from? Generally a moral realm that is completely unique, transcendent. Does each person have a moral purpose/morally ideal way to live? Generally, but the way to live in order to meet that purpose is unique for each individual. Must a person be coerced/ influenced at some level by societal powers in order to live morally/virtuously? Yes, people will try to be good when they have knowledge of the virtuous life, but societal guidance and reinforcement is necessary. Somewhat agrees To be virtuous/live morally, we should primarily make moral distinctions according mostly to our empirical knowledge (what we know with experimentation).	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) See notes on other philosophers and philosophies Rousseau argues that freedom and authority are not contradictory, since legitimate laws are founded on the general will of the citizens. In obeying the law, the individual citizen is thus only obeying himself as a member of the political community. Rousseau asks how we can have a law of nature if we do not understand the real nature of man. In doing this, he questions the common idea that only rational beings (i.e. humans) can take part in natural law or have natural rights. In Rousseau's The Social Contract written in 1762, he says the following: “Again, every rogue who criminously attacks social rights becomes, by his wrong, a rebel and a traitor to his fatherland. By contravening its laws, he ceases to be one of its citizens: he even wages war against it. In such circumstances, the State and he cannot both be saved: one or the other must perish. In killing the criminal, we destroy not so much a citizen as an enemy. The trial and judgements are proofs that he has broken the Social Contract, and so is no longer a member of the State.”	Rate This Philosopher (5=best, 0=poor) Any comments Discuss philosophy Go to Ethical Philosophy Selector